International Islamic University Malaysia
The theory of Ibn Khaldun’s Assabiyah and the consequence in the
Islamic world
Political Though I
Department of Human Science, Political Science
Kulliyaha of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Science
Mohamed Ismail Abdullah
1037927
Abstract:
this paper examines the theory of Assabiyah and its effect to the Muslim world,
comparing and contrasting Islamic view and Western Weltanschauung. As well as,
explains the impact of Assabiyah in the medieval era, Modern and Post modern
ages in the Islamic civilization, together with Muslim governments in different
states in the world.
Key terms: Assabiyah, Tribalism,
Clanism, Civilization, Social Solidarity,
Introduction:
In the history, Muslim political has
been fall and rise, and the Islamic caliphate has been replaced by one after
another caliphate, until the dissolution of the last Islamic state in the
middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire.
It was started the period of the prophet
Mohammad and later on followed by the four rightly guided pious Caliphates,
after decades of peace and prospers, continued by the Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphate
empires.
However, the vision of the Islamic
caliphate system declined gradually, due to tensions between Muslims, which was
caused the Fitnah (temptation) among the Muslims caused by the Assabiyah.[1]
After several wars, the Abbasid
caliphate continued their vision the control and protect the Islamic Caliphate
from everything weather its crusades or other foes that is trying to demolish
and abolish the Islamic succession.[2]
In addition, after the fall of the Othman
Empire in the nineteen century, the Muslim fought each other, and tensions was
based on territories, bounders, and other tribalism which led the colonies to
came and occupy Muslim nations.[3]
The western colonist did not occupy
the land only, but they made Intellectual invasion in the Muslim society.
Until now, Muslim leaders are highly
influenced the theories of colonist which are the Assabiyah, patriotism and
nationalism, which the prophet prohibited his followers disobediently.
What
is Assabiyah?
Assabiyah
is an Arabic term which means societal solidarity or unity used and practiced
negatively, or group of society gathered and shared common purpose; similarly
it refers tribe or clan movement.[4]
Other
scholars believe that the Assabiyah is social cohesion which comes from group
member’s promises to do something together weather is good or bad and to
complete their shared task to reach aims or goals.
Assabiyah
in Islamic View
Islam
has been forbade the practicing the different types of Assabiyah, the Qur’anic
doctrine has been mentioned the Assabiyah in several times as well as the
prophet Mohamed prohibited his believers involving the social cohesions.
ليس منا
من دعا إلى عصبية وليس منا من قاتل على عصبية وليس منا من مات على عصبية.[5]
Islam
is not only a religion to practice, but it is the way of life, the prophet has
been told his Ummah that saying “He is not
one of us who calls for Asabiyyah, (tribalism/nationalism) or who fights for
Asabiyyah, or who dies for Asabiyyah.”
Nevertheless,
when the Muslim society turns away the justice and the Islamic principles, they
tend to fellow their own yearning.
Muslim
scholars and philosophers stated the impact of Assabiyah in the Muslim
political leadership, referencing the prophets’ explanation of Assabiyah when
the pious companions asked him the explanation of Assabiyah, and explained:
"أن تعين قومك على الظلم"
Which
means helping and supporting to your family and your own people in unjust
issues.
Also
narrated the prophet he said:
"انصر
أخاك ظاما او مظلوماَ قيل يا رسول الله، أنصره مظلوماً، فكيف أنصره ظالماً قال
تحجزه او تمنعه عن ظلمه فإن ذالك نصره"
“Help your brother whether he is an oppressor or
is being oppressed.” It was said, “O Messenger of Allah, we help the one being
oppressed but how do we help an oppressor?” The Prophet said, “By
seizing his hand.”[6]
On the other hand, Ibn Khaldon stated his book Al-Muqaddimah
(Introduction), the state of affairs will be despoiled when those leaders rule their
own people and themselves through falsehood, trick, and dishonesty.[7]
Which mean if the head of the state led his people lying and
injustice, therefore, he will precede his community to destroy themselves
before others to eliminate them.
Moreover, Ibn Khaldun
expressed that the social cohesion Assabiyah is another vital factor
that diminish a nation achievement. Without hesitation, a well-built bond between
members of a people, family, or a group is actually critical building a
civilization. The members of a group need to support each other to fight
against their foes in a physically powerful way, whether it’s economically or
martially.[8]
Nevertheless,
when the strong relationship among specific members becomes loose and weak it
leads to demolish these members physically and mentally.
On the other
hand, Islamic governmental systems is based on Justice, Faith and Trust (Ammanah),
when the Muslim leader misused his political powers things goes worst, and it
leads the state to fall.
As the Sheikh
Al-Islam, Ibn Taymiyah articulated regarding social justice “Allah grant
victory and Support the state which is based on justice even though if it’s
Non-Muslim-State, and Allah does not grant factory to unjust state even its
Muslim state”.
"الله ينصر
الدولة العادلة وإن كانت كافرة، ولا ينصر الدولة الظالمة وإن كانت مؤمنة"[9]
In
illustration, from this theological point, Ibn Taymiyah argued that if the state
is built in justice, trust and it works in transparency the solidarity bond
between the ruler and the his followers became strong.
One
of the most causes that the Muslim caliphate system fall was the Assabiyah,
nepotism which caused fintah among Muslim, I.e. the throne war between Ali and
Mu’awiyah, which led the assignation of the Muslim caliphs Ali and Othman.
Western
Weltanschauung on Assabiyaha
According to the
political philosopher, the western view on Assabiyaha has been explained
the action of ones in helping his people or his group against any aggressive
action.
the quality of a person who is irritated for
the sake of his group and protecting them, the action of ones who invites
others to help his group, to combine or league with them in facing those who
act hostility towards them whether they are offenders or aggrieved, the accomplishment
of an individual who connect with others or of him who protects others or membership
and a strong connection with holds numbers of person closely bound based.
According to the
word Asabiyyah came out from the word Ta’sub” which
literally is to be intolerance for something or an individual filled with
excessive and often misguided eagerness for something bound the
turban round.
Furthermore,
western society had an extreme intolerance between Muslim and themselves. The
social cohesions and the intolerance between the western societies started in
the middle of twelfth century, most of them were military campaigns against
each other.
At the end of
the 13th century the battle of sterling bridge between the Scottish
and English armies was one of them.
This battle was
a good example what is Assabiyah is the western, these Scottish were social
solidity, there aim was to defeat the English armies, to survive and protect
themselves and their land.[10]
Hence, if there
is a social solidity, cohesion and bound between a group of people, family, or
specific members it’s a considered to be Assabiyah in Islam.
On the other
hand, the intolerance between Western and Muslims started at early tenth
century due to the crusade wars.
The crusade
wars[11]
was a military campaigns legitimated by the Christian churches, their aim was
to restore the Christian vision. Numerous
historians and scholars believe that the military crusade campaigns started for
a multiplicity of religious, economic, and political motives.[12]
Thus,
the modern political philosophers argues that, there are no difference between
the Assabiyah in Islam and Western, explaining that, the aim of Assabiyah is to
practice something which is extreme, or a specific group to unite to fulfill a
common task whether the result is tend to be negative and unjust.
Ibn
Khaldon his view of Assabiyah
Based
on Ibn khaldon’s explanation, the spirit of Assabiyah basically exists due to
the primitive life possessed by certain groups or nations when the face
difficulties. These force them to stand together to protect themselves and
their fellows from any danger outside their group.
The spirit
of group feeling Assabiyah emerged because they had to fight for the basic
need.
The
spirit of Assabiyah usual arises from the blood relationship, which is the core
element of this spirit. On the other hand, the sense of Assabiyah could also
exist in those who have no blood relation, yet have a common view from alliance
and clientship
Another
point to note is that the religion plays a crucial role in binding the members
of a group through the spirit of Assabiyah the spirit of Assabiyah is essential
in spreading the teaching of religion.[13]
Religion
eliminates Jealousy among the members of group that possess Assabiyah.
Ibn Khaldon
mentioned his book; Al-Muqaddimah (Introduction), that Assabiyah “Group
Feeling” is “The
group with which a human being feels most closely connected is primarily that
of his relatives, the people with whom he shares a common descent.”
But as a feeling and a state of
mind the 'asabiyah can also be shared by people not related to each
other by blood ties but by long and close contact as members of a group.
Assabiyah in the
21st century
In this civilized world, nowadays
societies do not practice the Assabiyah, specially the developed nations, may
you can find it some parts of third world.
Before it was, Jahili system
which was an extreme group feeling, later on it changed to civilization after
that it leads clash and competence between them which caused the clash of the
civilizations.
In this 21st
century, Muslims has an Intellectual Invasion
which the Muslim youth and their leaders has been brainwashed, Intellectual
invasion is a modern
term which is a nation to take over another nation to influence them their political thoughts.
It is more
dangerous than the military invasion; because the intellectual invasion tends to be a behavior, manner and other
philosophical ideas with hidden lanes, even thought that the society cannot be able
to protect it.
In addition, these intellectual invasions are incurable disease that kills
nation’s character, identity, and its historical background.
For example, the patriotism, nepotism, and favoritism which can be found in the
Muslim society.
Patriotism[14] is to fell in love in your homeland, it basically
means nationalism, and its political ideology brought by colonist in the early
nineteenth century, but in the most of Muslim nations has been intellectually
envisioned, teaching that patriotism is first and the foremost for their lives.
Conclusion
Assabiyah,
intellectual invasions, and other political thoughts are main challenges that
the Muslim Societies suffering. In the past Muslims faced challenges between
civilizations, most of them they conquered.
Nowadays
they have intellectual invasions which are the most dangerous invasions, in the
human history, nations destroyed and framed uncommitted blameworthy, Muslim
nations thought country is more important than other thing else which he/she
get nervous when conflict rise between two Muslim neighbor countries which may
led assabiyah.
International Islamic University Malaysia
The theory of Ibn Khaldun’s Assabiyah and the consequence in the
Islamic world
Political Though I
Department of Human Science, Political Science
Kulliyaha of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Science
Mohamed Ismail Abdullah
1037927
Abstract:
this paper examines the theory of Assabiyah and its effect to the Muslim world,
comparing and contrasting Islamic view and Western Weltanschauung. As well as,
explains the impact of Assabiyah in the medieval era, Modern and Post modern
ages in the Islamic civilization, together with Muslim governments in different
states in the world.
Key terms: Assabiyah, Tribalism,
Clanism, Civilization, Social Solidarity,
Introduction:
In the history, Muslim political has
been fall and rise, and the Islamic caliphate has been replaced by one after
another caliphate, until the dissolution of the last Islamic state in the
middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire.
It was started the period of the prophet
Mohammad and later on followed by the four rightly guided pious Caliphates,
after decades of peace and prospers, continued by the Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphate
empires.
However, the vision of the Islamic
caliphate system declined gradually, due to tensions between Muslims, which was
caused the Fitnah (temptation) among the Muslims caused by the Assabiyah.[1]
After several wars, the Abbasid
caliphate continued their vision the control and protect the Islamic Caliphate
from everything weather its crusades or other foes that is trying to demolish
and abolish the Islamic succession.[2]
In addition, after the fall of the Othman
Empire in the nineteen century, the Muslim fought each other, and tensions was
based on territories, bounders, and other tribalism which led the colonies to
came and occupy Muslim nations.[3]
The western colonist did not occupy
the land only, but they made Intellectual invasion in the Muslim society.
Until now, Muslim leaders are highly
influenced the theories of colonist which are the Assabiyah, patriotism and
nationalism, which the prophet prohibited his followers disobediently.
What
is Assabiyah?
Assabiyah
is an Arabic term which means societal solidarity or unity used and practiced
negatively, or group of society gathered and shared common purpose; similarly
it refers tribe or clan movement.[4]
Other
scholars believe that the Assabiyah is social cohesion which comes from group
member’s promises to do something together weather is good or bad and to
complete their shared task to reach aims or goals.
Assabiyah
in Islamic View
Islam
has been forbade the practicing the different types of Assabiyah, the Qur’anic
doctrine has been mentioned the Assabiyah in several times as well as the
prophet Mohamed prohibited his believers involving the social cohesions.
ليس منا
من دعا إلى عصبية وليس منا من قاتل على عصبية وليس منا من مات على عصبية.[5]
Islam
is not only a religion to practice, but it is the way of life, the prophet has
been told his Ummah that saying “He is not
one of us who calls for Asabiyyah, (tribalism/nationalism) or who fights for
Asabiyyah, or who dies for Asabiyyah.”
Nevertheless,
when the Muslim society turns away the justice and the Islamic principles, they
tend to fellow their own yearning.
Muslim
scholars and philosophers stated the impact of Assabiyah in the Muslim
political leadership, referencing the prophets’ explanation of Assabiyah when
the pious companions asked him the explanation of Assabiyah, and explained:
"أن تعين قومك على الظلم"
Which
means helping and supporting to your family and your own people in unjust
issues.
Also
narrated the prophet he said:
"انصر
أخاك ظاما او مظلوماَ قيل يا رسول الله، أنصره مظلوماً، فكيف أنصره ظالماً قال
تحجزه او تمنعه عن ظلمه فإن ذالك نصره"
“Help your brother whether he is an oppressor or
is being oppressed.” It was said, “O Messenger of Allah, we help the one being
oppressed but how do we help an oppressor?” The Prophet said, “By
seizing his hand.”[6]
On the other hand, Ibn Khaldon stated his book Al-Muqaddimah
(Introduction), the state of affairs will be despoiled when those leaders rule their
own people and themselves through falsehood, trick, and dishonesty.[7]
Which mean if the head of the state led his people lying and
injustice, therefore, he will precede his community to destroy themselves
before others to eliminate them.
Moreover, Ibn Khaldun
expressed that the social cohesion Assabiyah is another vital factor
that diminish a nation achievement. Without hesitation, a well-built bond between
members of a people, family, or a group is actually critical building a
civilization. The members of a group need to support each other to fight
against their foes in a physically powerful way, whether it’s economically or
martially.[8]
Nevertheless,
when the strong relationship among specific members becomes loose and weak it
leads to demolish these members physically and mentally.
On the other
hand, Islamic governmental systems is based on Justice, Faith and Trust (Ammanah),
when the Muslim leader misused his political powers things goes worst, and it
leads the state to fall.
As the Sheikh
Al-Islam, Ibn Taymiyah articulated regarding social justice “Allah grant
victory and Support the state which is based on justice even though if it’s
Non-Muslim-State, and Allah does not grant factory to unjust state even its
Muslim state”.
"الله ينصر
الدولة العادلة وإن كانت كافرة، ولا ينصر الدولة الظالمة وإن كانت مؤمنة"[9]
In
illustration, from this theological point, Ibn Taymiyah argued that if the state
is built in justice, trust and it works in transparency the solidarity bond
between the ruler and the his followers became strong.
One
of the most causes that the Muslim caliphate system fall was the Assabiyah,
nepotism which caused fintah among Muslim, I.e. the throne war between Ali and
Mu’awiyah, which led the assignation of the Muslim caliphs Ali and Othman.
Western
Weltanschauung on Assabiyaha
According to the
political philosopher, the western view on Assabiyaha has been explained
the action of ones in helping his people or his group against any aggressive
action.
the quality of a person who is irritated for
the sake of his group and protecting them, the action of ones who invites
others to help his group, to combine or league with them in facing those who
act hostility towards them whether they are offenders or aggrieved, the accomplishment
of an individual who connect with others or of him who protects others or membership
and a strong connection with holds numbers of person closely bound based.
According to the
word Asabiyyah came out from the word Ta’sub” which
literally is to be intolerance for something or an individual filled with
excessive and often misguided eagerness for something bound the
turban round.
Furthermore,
western society had an extreme intolerance between Muslim and themselves. The
social cohesions and the intolerance between the western societies started in
the middle of twelfth century, most of them were military campaigns against
each other.
At the end of
the 13th century the battle of sterling bridge between the Scottish
and English armies was one of them.
This battle was
a good example what is Assabiyah is the western, these Scottish were social
solidity, there aim was to defeat the English armies, to survive and protect
themselves and their land.[10]
Hence, if there
is a social solidity, cohesion and bound between a group of people, family, or
specific members it’s a considered to be Assabiyah in Islam.
On the other
hand, the intolerance between Western and Muslims started at early tenth
century due to the crusade wars.
The crusade
wars[11]
was a military campaigns legitimated by the Christian churches, their aim was
to restore the Christian vision. Numerous
historians and scholars believe that the military crusade campaigns started for
a multiplicity of religious, economic, and political motives.[12]
Thus,
the modern political philosophers argues that, there are no difference between
the Assabiyah in Islam and Western, explaining that, the aim of Assabiyah is to
practice something which is extreme, or a specific group to unite to fulfill a
common task whether the result is tend to be negative and unjust.
Ibn
Khaldon his view of Assabiyah
Based
on Ibn khaldon’s explanation, the spirit of Assabiyah basically exists due to
the primitive life possessed by certain groups or nations when the face
difficulties. These force them to stand together to protect themselves and
their fellows from any danger outside their group.
The spirit
of group feeling Assabiyah emerged because they had to fight for the basic
need.
The
spirit of Assabiyah usual arises from the blood relationship, which is the core
element of this spirit. On the other hand, the sense of Assabiyah could also
exist in those who have no blood relation, yet have a common view from alliance
and clientship
Another
point to note is that the religion plays a crucial role in binding the members
of a group through the spirit of Assabiyah the spirit of Assabiyah is essential
in spreading the teaching of religion.[13]
Religion
eliminates Jealousy among the members of group that possess Assabiyah.
Ibn Khaldon
mentioned his book; Al-Muqaddimah (Introduction), that Assabiyah “Group
Feeling” is “The
group with which a human being feels most closely connected is primarily that
of his relatives, the people with whom he shares a common descent.”
But as a feeling and a state of
mind the 'asabiyah can also be shared by people not related to each
other by blood ties but by long and close contact as members of a group.
Assabiyah in the
21st century
In this civilized world, nowadays
societies do not practice the Assabiyah, specially the developed nations, may
you can find it some parts of third world.
Before it was, Jahili system
which was an extreme group feeling, later on it changed to civilization after
that it leads clash and competence between them which caused the clash of the
civilizations.
In this 21st
century, Muslims has an Intellectual Invasion
which the Muslim youth and their leaders has been brainwashed, Intellectual
invasion is a modern
term which is a nation to take over another nation to influence them their political thoughts.
It is more
dangerous than the military invasion; because the intellectual invasion tends to be a behavior, manner and other
philosophical ideas with hidden lanes, even thought that the society cannot be able
to protect it.
In addition, these intellectual invasions are incurable disease that kills
nation’s character, identity, and its historical background.
For example, the patriotism, nepotism, and favoritism which can be found in the
Muslim society.
Patriotism[14] is to fell in love in your homeland, it basically
means nationalism, and its political ideology brought by colonist in the early
nineteenth century, but in the most of Muslim nations has been intellectually
envisioned, teaching that patriotism is first and the foremost for their lives.
Conclusion
Assabiyah,
intellectual invasions, and other political thoughts are main challenges that
the Muslim Societies suffering. In the past Muslims faced challenges between
civilizations, most of them they conquered.
Nowadays
they have intellectual invasions which are the most dangerous invasions, in the
human history, nations destroyed and framed uncommitted blameworthy, Muslim
nations thought country is more important than other thing else which he/she
get nervous when conflict rise between two Muslim neighbor countries which may
led assabiyah.
Bibliography
1.
Zakaria, R.,
1989. The Struggle within Islam: The Conflict between Religion and Politics.
London: Penguin Books.
2.
Saeed, J.,
1994. Islam and Modernization: A comparative Analysis in Pakistan, Egypt and
Turkey: Praeger.
3.
The Political
Theory of Ibn Khaldun. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
4.
Mahdi, M.,
1957. Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy of History. London: George Allen and
Unwin Ltd.
5.
Lacoste, Y.,
1984. Ibn Khaldun: The Birth of History and the Past of the Third World.
London: Verso, Editions.
6.
Asad, M., 1961.
The Principles of State and Government in Islam. Gibraltar: Dar Al-Andalus.
7.
Issawi, C.,
1950. An Arab Philosophy of History. London: John Murray.
8.
Siba‘i, M.,
2002. The Islamic Civilization. Swansea: Awakening Publications.
9.
Buck N., Social
cohesion in cities, in Buck N., Gordon I., Harding A. and Turok I.
10.
Mehmet, O.
(1995), Westernizing the Third World, The Eurocentricity of Economic
Development.
11.
Theories,
Routledge, London and New York, NY.
12.
McCarthy, R.J.
(1980), Freedom and Fulfillment: An Annotated Translation of al-Ghazzali’s
al-Munqidh min al-Dalal and Other Relevant Works, Boston, MA.
[1] Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. The History of the Prophets and
Kings (Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk), Vol. 18 Between Civil Wars: The
Caliphate of Mu'awiyah 40 A.H., 661 A.D.-60 A.H., 680 A.D. (Michael G.
Morony).
[2] Lapidus,
Ira (2002), A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge University Press,
p. 54, ISBN 0-521-77056-4
[3] Hussain,
Ishtiaq. "The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire", Faith
Matters(October 2011)
[4] Ibn Khaldun,
1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to
History, New York: Princeton University Press.
[5] Hadith of the
prophet peace be upon him.
[6] Hadith of the
prophet peace be upon him.
[7]
Ibn
Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction
to History, New York: Princeton University Press.
[8]
Ibn
Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction
to History, New York: Princeton University Press.
[9] Ibn Taymiyah,
quota, Sheikh Al-Islam
[10] English and
Scottish wars in the 14th century
[11]
Wars between Muslims and Crhirsiant crusades in 10th century
[12] Riley-Smith, Johnathan (1995). The Oxford Illustrated history
of the Crusades. Oxford: Oxford Press. p. 66.
[13]
Ibn
Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction
to History, New York: Princeton University Press.
[14] Craig Calhoun, Is it Time to
Be Postnational?, in Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights,
(eds.) Stephen May, Tariq Modood and Judith Squires. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
2004. pp 231–256
Bibliography
1.
Zakaria, R.,
1989. The Struggle within Islam: The Conflict between Religion and Politics.
London: Penguin Books.
2.
Saeed, J.,
1994. Islam and Modernization: A comparative Analysis in Pakistan, Egypt and
Turkey: Praeger.
3.
The Political
Theory of Ibn Khaldun. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
4.
Mahdi, M.,
1957. Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy of History. London: George Allen and
Unwin Ltd.
5.
Lacoste, Y.,
1984. Ibn Khaldun: The Birth of History and the Past of the Third World.
London: Verso, Editions.
6.
Asad, M., 1961.
The Principles of State and Government in Islam. Gibraltar: Dar Al-Andalus.
7.
Issawi, C.,
1950. An Arab Philosophy of History. London: John Murray.
8.
Siba‘i, M.,
2002. The Islamic Civilization. Swansea: Awakening Publications.
9.
Buck N., Social
cohesion in cities, in Buck N., Gordon I., Harding A. and Turok I.
10.
Mehmet, O.
(1995), Westernizing the Third World, The Eurocentricity of Economic
Development.
11.
Theories,
Routledge, London and New York, NY.
12.
McCarthy, R.J.
(1980), Freedom and Fulfillment: An Annotated Translation of al-Ghazzali’s
al-Munqidh min al-Dalal and Other Relevant Works, Boston, MA.
[1] Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. The History of the Prophets and
Kings (Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk), Vol. 18 Between Civil Wars: The
Caliphate of Mu'awiyah 40 A.H., 661 A.D.-60 A.H., 680 A.D. (Michael G.
Morony).
[2] Lapidus,
Ira (2002), A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge University Press,
p. 54, ISBN 0-521-77056-4
[3] Hussain,
Ishtiaq. "The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire", Faith
Matters(October 2011)
[4] Ibn Khaldun,
1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to
History, New York: Princeton University Press.
[5] Hadith of the
prophet peace be upon him.
[6] Hadith of the
prophet peace be upon him.
[7]
Ibn
Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction
to History, New York: Princeton University Press.
[8]
Ibn
Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction
to History, New York: Princeton University Press.
[9] Ibn Taymiyah,
quota, Sheikh Al-Islam
[10] English and
Scottish wars in the 14th century
[11]
Wars between Muslims and Crhirsiant crusades in 10th century
[12] Riley-Smith, Johnathan (1995). The Oxford Illustrated history
of the Crusades. Oxford: Oxford Press. p. 66.
[13]
Ibn
Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction
to History, New York: Princeton University Press.
[14] Craig Calhoun, Is it Time to
Be Postnational?, in Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights,
(eds.) Stephen May, Tariq Modood and Judith Squires. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
2004. pp 231–256
