Theory of Ibn Khaldun of Assabiyah and the the consequence in the Islamic world

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

International Islamic University Malaysia

 

The theory of Ibn Khaldun’s Assabiyah and the consequence in the Islamic world

Political Though I

Department of Human Science, Political Science

Kulliyaha of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Science

Mohamed Ismail Abdullah

                                                       1037927      

 

 

 

Abstract: this paper examines the theory of Assabiyah and its effect to the Muslim world, comparing and contrasting Islamic view and Western Weltanschauung. As well as, explains the impact of Assabiyah in the medieval era, Modern and Post modern ages in the Islamic civilization, together with Muslim governments in different states in the world.

 

 

 

 Key terms: Assabiyah, Tribalism, Clanism, Civilization, Social Solidarity,

 

Introduction:

 

In the history, Muslim political has been fall and rise, and the Islamic caliphate has been replaced by one after another caliphate, until the dissolution of the last Islamic state in the middle of the 19^th century, the Ottoman Empire.

It was started the period of the prophet Mohammad and later on followed by the four rightly guided pious Caliphates, after decades of peace and prospers, continued by the Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphate empires.

However, the vision of the Islamic caliphate system declined gradually, due to tensions between Muslims, which was caused the Fitnah (temptation) among the Muslims caused by the Assabiyah.[1]

After several wars, the Abbasid caliphate continued their vision the control and protect the Islamic Caliphate from everything weather its crusades or other foes that is trying to demolish and abolish the Islamic succession.[2]

 In addition, after the fall of the Othman Empire in the nineteen century, the Muslim fought each other, and tensions was based on territories, bounders, and other tribalism which led the colonies to came and occupy Muslim nations.[3]

The western colonist did not occupy the land only, but they made Intellectual invasion in the Muslim society.

Until now, Muslim leaders are highly influenced the theories of colonist which are the Assabiyah, patriotism and nationalism, which the prophet prohibited his followers disobediently.

                                                     

 

What is Assabiyah?

Assabiyah is an Arabic term which means societal solidarity or unity used and practiced negatively, or group of society gathered and shared common purpose; similarly it refers tribe or clan movement.[4]

Other scholars believe that the Assabiyah is social cohesion which comes from group member’s promises to do something together weather is good or bad and to complete their shared task to reach aims or goals.

Assabiyah in Islamic View

Islam has been forbade the practicing the different types of Assabiyah, the Qur’anic doctrine has been mentioned the Assabiyah in several times as well as the prophet Mohamed prohibited his believers involving the social cohesions.

ليس منا من دعا إلى عصبية وليس منا من قاتل على عصبية وليس منا من مات على عصبية.[5]

Islam is not only a religion to practice, but it is the way of life, the prophet has been told his Ummah that saying “He is not one of us who calls for Asabiyyah, (tribalism/nationalism) or who fights for Asabiyyah, or who dies for Asabiyyah.”

Nevertheless, when the Muslim society turns away the justice and the Islamic principles, they tend to fellow their own yearning.

Muslim scholars and philosophers stated the impact of Assabiyah in the Muslim political leadership, referencing the prophets’ explanation of Assabiyah when the pious companions asked him the explanation of Assabiyah, and explained:

"أن تعين قومك على الظلم"

Which means helping and supporting to your family and your own people in unjust issues.

Also narrated the prophet he said:

"انصر أخاك ظاما او مظلوماَ قيل يا رسول الله، أنصره مظلوماً، فكيف أنصره ظالماً قال تحجزه او تمنعه عن ظلمه فإن ذالك نصره"

“Help your brother whether he is an oppressor or is being oppressed.” It was said, “O Messenger of Allah, we help the one being oppressed but how do we help an oppressor?” The Prophet said, “By seizing his hand.”[6]

On the other hand, Ibn Khaldon stated his book Al-Muqaddimah (Introduction), the state of affairs will be despoiled when those leaders rule their own people and themselves through falsehood, trick, and dishonesty.[7]

Which mean if the head of the state led his people lying and injustice, therefore, he will precede his community to destroy themselves before others to eliminate them.

Moreover, Ibn Khaldun expressed that the social cohesion Assabiyah is another vital factor that diminish a nation achievement. Without hesitation, a well-built bond between members of a people, family, or a group is actually critical building a civilization. The members of a group need to support each other to fight against their foes in a physically powerful way, whether it’s economically or martially.[8]

 

Nevertheless, when the strong relationship among specific members becomes loose and weak it leads to demolish these members physically and mentally.

 

On the other hand, Islamic governmental systems is based on Justice, Faith and Trust (Ammanah), when the Muslim leader misused his political powers things goes worst, and it leads the state to fall.

 

As the Sheikh Al-Islam, Ibn Taymiyah articulated regarding social justice “Allah grant victory and Support the state which is based on justice even though if it’s Non-Muslim-State, and Allah does not grant factory to unjust state even its Muslim state”.

 

"الله ينصر الدولة العادلة وإن كانت كافرة، ولا ينصر الدولة الظالمة وإن كانت مؤمنة"[9]

 

In illustration, from this theological point, Ibn Taymiyah argued that if the state is built in justice, trust and it works in transparency the solidarity bond between the ruler and the his followers became strong.

 

One of the most causes that the Muslim caliphate system fall was the Assabiyah, nepotism which caused fintah among Muslim, I.e. the throne war between Ali and Mu’awiyah, which led the assignation of the Muslim caliphs Ali and Othman.

 

Western Weltanschauung on Assabiyaha

According to the political philosopher, the western view on Assabiyaha has been explained the action of ones in helping his people or his group against any aggressive action.

 

 the quality of a person who is irritated for the sake of his group and protecting them, the action of ones who invites others to help his group, to combine or league with them in facing those who act hostility towards them whether they are offenders or aggrieved, the accomplishment of an individual who connect with others or of him who protects others or membership and a strong connection with holds numbers of person closely bound based.

 

According to the word Asabiyyah came out from the word Ta’sub” which literally is to be intolerance for something or an individual filled with excessive and often misguided eagerness for something bound the turban round.

 

Furthermore, western society had an extreme intolerance between Muslim and themselves. The social cohesions and the intolerance between the western societies started in the middle of twelfth century, most of them were military campaigns against each other.

 

At the end of the 13^th century the battle of sterling bridge between the Scottish and English armies was one of them.

 

This battle was a good example what is Assabiyah is the western, these Scottish were social solidity, there aim was to defeat the English armies, to survive and protect themselves and their land.[10]

 

Hence, if there is a social solidity, cohesion and bound between a group of people, family, or specific members it’s a considered to be Assabiyah in Islam.

 

On the other hand, the intolerance between Western and Muslims started at early tenth century due to the crusade wars.

 

The crusade wars[11] was a military campaigns legitimated by the Christian churches, their aim was to restore the Christian vision. Numerous historians and scholars believe that the military crusade campaigns started for a multiplicity of religious, economic, and political motives.[12]

 

Thus, the modern political philosophers argues that, there are no difference between the Assabiyah in Islam and Western, explaining that, the aim of Assabiyah is to practice something which is extreme, or a specific group to unite to fulfill a common task whether the result is tend to be negative and unjust.

 

 

Ibn Khaldon his view of Assabiyah

Based on Ibn khaldon’s explanation, the spirit of Assabiyah basically exists due to the primitive life possessed by certain groups or nations when the face difficulties. These force them to stand together to protect themselves and their fellows from any danger outside their group.

The spirit of group feeling Assabiyah emerged because they had to fight for the basic need.

The spirit of Assabiyah usual arises from the blood relationship, which is the core element of this spirit. On the other hand, the sense of Assabiyah could also exist in those who have no blood relation, yet have a common view from alliance and clientship

Another point to note is that the religion plays a crucial role in binding the members of a group through the spirit of Assabiyah the spirit of Assabiyah is essential in spreading the teaching of religion.[13]

Religion eliminates Jealousy among the members of group that possess Assabiyah.

Ibn Khaldon mentioned his book; Al-Muqaddimah (Introduction), that Assabiyah “Group Feeling” is “The group with which a human being feels most closely connected is primarily that of his relatives, the people with whom he shares a common descent.”

 

But as a feeling and a state of mind the 'asabiyah can also be shared by people not related to each other by blood ties but by long and close contact as members of a group.

 

 

 

 

Assabiyah in the 21^st century

 

In this civilized world, nowadays societies do not practice the Assabiyah, specially the developed nations, may you can find it some parts of third world.

 

Before it was, Jahili system which was an extreme group feeling, later on it changed to civilization after that it leads clash and competence between them which caused the clash of the civilizations.

 

In this 21^st century, Muslims has an Intellectual Invasion which the Muslim youth and their leaders has been brainwashed, Intellectual invasion is a modern term which is a nation to take over another nation to influence them their political thoughts.

 

 It is more dangerous than the military invasion; because the intellectual invasion tends to be a behavior, manner and other philosophical ideas with hidden lanes, even thought that the society cannot be able to protect it.

 

In addition, these intellectual invasions are incurable disease that kills nation’s character, identity, and its historical background. For example, the patriotism, nepotism, and favoritism which can be found in the Muslim society.

 

Patriotism[14] is to fell in love in your homeland, it basically means nationalism, and its political ideology brought by colonist in the early nineteenth century, but in the most of Muslim nations has been intellectually envisioned, teaching that patriotism is first and the foremost for their lives.

 

 

Conclusion

Assabiyah, intellectual invasions, and other political thoughts are main challenges that the Muslim Societies suffering. In the past Muslims faced challenges between civilizations, most of them they conquered.

Nowadays they have intellectual invasions which are the most dangerous invasions, in the human history, nations destroyed and framed uncommitted blameworthy, Muslim nations thought country is more important than other thing else which he/she get nervous when conflict rise between two Muslim neighbor countries which may led assabiyah.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

International Islamic University Malaysia

 

The theory of Ibn Khaldun’s Assabiyah and the consequence in the Islamic world

Political Though I

Department of Human Science, Political Science

Kulliyaha of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Science

Mohamed Ismail Abdullah

                                                       1037927      

 

 

 

Abstract: this paper examines the theory of Assabiyah and its effect to the Muslim world, comparing and contrasting Islamic view and Western Weltanschauung. As well as, explains the impact of Assabiyah in the medieval era, Modern and Post modern ages in the Islamic civilization, together with Muslim governments in different states in the world.

 

 

 

 Key terms: Assabiyah, Tribalism, Clanism, Civilization, Social Solidarity,

 

Introduction:

 

In the history, Muslim political has been fall and rise, and the Islamic caliphate has been replaced by one after another caliphate, until the dissolution of the last Islamic state in the middle of the 19^th century, the Ottoman Empire.

It was started the period of the prophet Mohammad and later on followed by the four rightly guided pious Caliphates, after decades of peace and prospers, continued by the Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphate empires.

However, the vision of the Islamic caliphate system declined gradually, due to tensions between Muslims, which was caused the Fitnah (temptation) among the Muslims caused by the Assabiyah.[1]

After several wars, the Abbasid caliphate continued their vision the control and protect the Islamic Caliphate from everything weather its crusades or other foes that is trying to demolish and abolish the Islamic succession.[2]

 In addition, after the fall of the Othman Empire in the nineteen century, the Muslim fought each other, and tensions was based on territories, bounders, and other tribalism which led the colonies to came and occupy Muslim nations.[3]

The western colonist did not occupy the land only, but they made Intellectual invasion in the Muslim society.

Until now, Muslim leaders are highly influenced the theories of colonist which are the Assabiyah, patriotism and nationalism, which the prophet prohibited his followers disobediently.

                                                     

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

What is Assabiyah?

Assabiyah is an Arabic term which means societal solidarity or unity used and practiced negatively, or group of society gathered and shared common purpose; similarly it refers tribe or clan movement.[4]

Other scholars believe that the Assabiyah is social cohesion which comes from group member’s promises to do something together weather is good or bad and to complete their shared task to reach aims or goals.

Assabiyah in Islamic View

Islam has been forbade the practicing the different types of Assabiyah, the Qur’anic doctrine has been mentioned the Assabiyah in several times as well as the prophet Mohamed prohibited his believers involving the social cohesions.

ليس منا من دعا إلى عصبية وليس منا من قاتل على عصبية وليس منا من مات على عصبية.[5]

Islam is not only a religion to practice, but it is the way of life, the prophet has been told his Ummah that saying “He is not one of us who calls for Asabiyyah, (tribalism/nationalism) or who fights for Asabiyyah, or who dies for Asabiyyah.”

Nevertheless, when the Muslim society turns away the justice and the Islamic principles, they tend to fellow their own yearning.

Muslim scholars and philosophers stated the impact of Assabiyah in the Muslim political leadership, referencing the prophets’ explanation of Assabiyah when the pious companions asked him the explanation of Assabiyah, and explained:

"أن تعين قومك على الظلم"

Which means helping and supporting to your family and your own people in unjust issues.

Also narrated the prophet he said:

"انصر أخاك ظاما او مظلوماَ قيل يا رسول الله، أنصره مظلوماً، فكيف أنصره ظالماً قال تحجزه او تمنعه عن ظلمه فإن ذالك نصره"

“Help your brother whether he is an oppressor or is being oppressed.” It was said, “O Messenger of Allah, we help the one being oppressed but how do we help an oppressor?” The Prophet said, “By seizing his hand.”[6]

On the other hand, Ibn Khaldon stated his book Al-Muqaddimah (Introduction), the state of affairs will be despoiled when those leaders rule their own people and themselves through falsehood, trick, and dishonesty.[7]

Which mean if the head of the state led his people lying and injustice, therefore, he will precede his community to destroy themselves before others to eliminate them.

Moreover, Ibn Khaldun expressed that the social cohesion Assabiyah is another vital factor that diminish a nation achievement. Without hesitation, a well-built bond between members of a people, family, or a group is actually critical building a civilization. The members of a group need to support each other to fight against their foes in a physically powerful way, whether it’s economically or martially.[8]

 

Nevertheless, when the strong relationship among specific members becomes loose and weak it leads to demolish these members physically and mentally.

 

On the other hand, Islamic governmental systems is based on Justice, Faith and Trust (Ammanah), when the Muslim leader misused his political powers things goes worst, and it leads the state to fall.

 

As the Sheikh Al-Islam, Ibn Taymiyah articulated regarding social justice “Allah grant victory and Support the state which is based on justice even though if it’s Non-Muslim-State, and Allah does not grant factory to unjust state even its Muslim state”.

 

"الله ينصر الدولة العادلة وإن كانت كافرة، ولا ينصر الدولة الظالمة وإن كانت مؤمنة"[9]

 

In illustration, from this theological point, Ibn Taymiyah argued that if the state is built in justice, trust and it works in transparency the solidarity bond between the ruler and the his followers became strong.

 

One of the most causes that the Muslim caliphate system fall was the Assabiyah, nepotism which caused fintah among Muslim, I.e. the throne war between Ali and Mu’awiyah, which led the assignation of the Muslim caliphs Ali and Othman.

 

Western Weltanschauung on Assabiyaha

According to the political philosopher, the western view on Assabiyaha has been explained the action of ones in helping his people or his group against any aggressive action.

 

 the quality of a person who is irritated for the sake of his group and protecting them, the action of ones who invites others to help his group, to combine or league with them in facing those who act hostility towards them whether they are offenders or aggrieved, the accomplishment of an individual who connect with others or of him who protects others or membership and a strong connection with holds numbers of person closely bound based.

 

According to the word Asabiyyah came out from the word Ta’sub” which literally is to be intolerance for something or an individual filled with excessive and often misguided eagerness for something bound the turban round.

 

Furthermore, western society had an extreme intolerance between Muslim and themselves. The social cohesions and the intolerance between the western societies started in the middle of twelfth century, most of them were military campaigns against each other.

 

At the end of the 13^th century the battle of sterling bridge between the Scottish and English armies was one of them.

 

This battle was a good example what is Assabiyah is the western, these Scottish were social solidity, there aim was to defeat the English armies, to survive and protect themselves and their land.[10]

 

Hence, if there is a social solidity, cohesion and bound between a group of people, family, or specific members it’s a considered to be Assabiyah in Islam.

 

On the other hand, the intolerance between Western and Muslims started at early tenth century due to the crusade wars.

 

The crusade wars[11] was a military campaigns legitimated by the Christian churches, their aim was to restore the Christian vision. Numerous historians and scholars believe that the military crusade campaigns started for a multiplicity of religious, economic, and political motives.[12]

 

Thus, the modern political philosophers argues that, there are no difference between the Assabiyah in Islam and Western, explaining that, the aim of Assabiyah is to practice something which is extreme, or a specific group to unite to fulfill a common task whether the result is tend to be negative and unjust.

 

 

Ibn Khaldon his view of Assabiyah

Based on Ibn khaldon’s explanation, the spirit of Assabiyah basically exists due to the primitive life possessed by certain groups or nations when the face difficulties. These force them to stand together to protect themselves and their fellows from any danger outside their group.

The spirit of group feeling Assabiyah emerged because they had to fight for the basic need.

The spirit of Assabiyah usual arises from the blood relationship, which is the core element of this spirit. On the other hand, the sense of Assabiyah could also exist in those who have no blood relation, yet have a common view from alliance and clientship

Another point to note is that the religion plays a crucial role in binding the members of a group through the spirit of Assabiyah the spirit of Assabiyah is essential in spreading the teaching of religion.[13]

Religion eliminates Jealousy among the members of group that possess Assabiyah.

Ibn Khaldon mentioned his book; Al-Muqaddimah (Introduction), that Assabiyah “Group Feeling” is “The group with which a human being feels most closely connected is primarily that of his relatives, the people with whom he shares a common descent.”

 

But as a feeling and a state of mind the 'asabiyah can also be shared by people not related to each other by blood ties but by long and close contact as members of a group.

 

 

 

 

Assabiyah in the 21^st century

 

In this civilized world, nowadays societies do not practice the Assabiyah, specially the developed nations, may you can find it some parts of third world.

 

Before it was, Jahili system which was an extreme group feeling, later on it changed to civilization after that it leads clash and competence between them which caused the clash of the civilizations.

 

In this 21^st century, Muslims has an Intellectual Invasion which the Muslim youth and their leaders has been brainwashed, Intellectual invasion is a modern term which is a nation to take over another nation to influence them their political thoughts.

 

 It is more dangerous than the military invasion; because the intellectual invasion tends to be a behavior, manner and other philosophical ideas with hidden lanes, even thought that the society cannot be able to protect it.

 

In addition, these intellectual invasions are incurable disease that kills nation’s character, identity, and its historical background. For example, the patriotism, nepotism, and favoritism which can be found in the Muslim society.

 

Patriotism[14] is to fell in love in your homeland, it basically means nationalism, and its political ideology brought by colonist in the early nineteenth century, but in the most of Muslim nations has been intellectually envisioned, teaching that patriotism is first and the foremost for their lives.

 

 

Conclusion

Assabiyah, intellectual invasions, and other political thoughts are main challenges that the Muslim Societies suffering. In the past Muslims faced challenges between civilizations, most of them they conquered.

Nowadays they have intellectual invasions which are the most dangerous invasions, in the human history, nations destroyed and framed uncommitted blameworthy, Muslim nations thought country is more important than other thing else which he/she get nervous when conflict rise between two Muslim neighbor countries which may led assabiyah.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bibliography

1.     Zakaria, R., 1989. The Struggle within Islam: The Conflict between Religion and Politics. London: Penguin Books.

 

2.     Saeed, J., 1994. Islam and Modernization: A comparative Analysis in Pakistan, Egypt and Turkey: Praeger.

 

3.     The Political Theory of Ibn Khaldun. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

 

4.     Mahdi, M., 1957. Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy of History. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.

 

5.     Lacoste, Y., 1984. Ibn Khaldun: The Birth of History and the Past of the Third World. London: Verso, Editions.

 

6.     Asad, M., 1961. The Principles of State and Government in Islam. Gibraltar: Dar Al-Andalus.

 

7.     Issawi, C., 1950. An Arab Philosophy of History. London: John Murray.

 

8.     Siba‘i, M., 2002. The Islamic Civilization. Swansea: Awakening Publications.

 

9.     Buck N., Social cohesion in cities, in Buck N., Gordon I., Harding A. and Turok I.

 

10.                        Mehmet, O. (1995), Westernizing the Third World, The Eurocentricity of Economic Development.

 

11.                        Theories, Routledge, London and New York, NY.

 

12.                        McCarthy, R.J. (1980), Freedom and Fulfillment: An Annotated Translation of al-Ghazzali’s al-Munqidh min al-Dalal and Other Relevant Works, Boston, MA.

 

---

[1] Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. The History of the Prophets and Kings (Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk), Vol. 18 Between Civil Wars: The Caliphate of Mu'awiyah 40 A.H., 661 A.D.-60 A.H., 680 A.D. (Michael G. Morony).

[2] Lapidus, Ira (2002), A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge University Press, p. 54, ISBN 0-521-77056-4

[3] Hussain, Ishtiaq. "The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire", Faith Matters(October 2011)

[4] Ibn Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to History, New York: Princeton University Press.

[5] Hadith of the prophet peace be upon him.

[6] Hadith of the prophet peace be upon him.

[7] Ibn Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to History, New York: Princeton University Press.

[8] Ibn Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to History, New York: Princeton University Press.

 

[9] Ibn Taymiyah, quota, Sheikh Al-Islam

[10] English and Scottish wars in the 14^th century

[11] Wars between Muslims and Crhirsiant crusades in 10^th century

[12] Riley-Smith, Johnathan (1995). The Oxford Illustrated history of the Crusades. Oxford: Oxford Press. p. 66.

[13] Ibn Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to History, New York: Princeton University Press.

 

[14] Craig Calhoun, Is it Time to Be Postnational?, in Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights, (eds.) Stephen May, Tariq Modood and Judith Squires. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. pp 231–256

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bibliography

1.     Zakaria, R., 1989. The Struggle within Islam: The Conflict between Religion and Politics. London: Penguin Books.

 

2.     Saeed, J., 1994. Islam and Modernization: A comparative Analysis in Pakistan, Egypt and Turkey: Praeger.

 

3.     The Political Theory of Ibn Khaldun. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

 

4.     Mahdi, M., 1957. Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy of History. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.

 

5.     Lacoste, Y., 1984. Ibn Khaldun: The Birth of History and the Past of the Third World. London: Verso, Editions.

 

6.     Asad, M., 1961. The Principles of State and Government in Islam. Gibraltar: Dar Al-Andalus.

 

7.     Issawi, C., 1950. An Arab Philosophy of History. London: John Murray.

 

8.     Siba‘i, M., 2002. The Islamic Civilization. Swansea: Awakening Publications.

 

9.     Buck N., Social cohesion in cities, in Buck N., Gordon I., Harding A. and Turok I.

 

10.                        Mehmet, O. (1995), Westernizing the Third World, The Eurocentricity of Economic Development.

 

11.                        Theories, Routledge, London and New York, NY.

 

12.                        McCarthy, R.J. (1980), Freedom and Fulfillment: An Annotated Translation of al-Ghazzali’s al-Munqidh min al-Dalal and Other Relevant Works, Boston, MA.

 

---

[1] Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. The History of the Prophets and Kings (Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk), Vol. 18 Between Civil Wars: The Caliphate of Mu'awiyah 40 A.H., 661 A.D.-60 A.H., 680 A.D. (Michael G. Morony).

[2] Lapidus, Ira (2002), A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge University Press, p. 54, ISBN 0-521-77056-4

[3] Hussain, Ishtiaq. "The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire", Faith Matters(October 2011)

[4] Ibn Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to History, New York: Princeton University Press.

[5] Hadith of the prophet peace be upon him.

[6] Hadith of the prophet peace be upon him.

[7] Ibn Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to History, New York: Princeton University Press.

[8] Ibn Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to History, New York: Princeton University Press.

 

[9] Ibn Taymiyah, quota, Sheikh Al-Islam

[10] English and Scottish wars in the 14^th century

[11] Wars between Muslims and Crhirsiant crusades in 10^th century

[12] Riley-Smith, Johnathan (1995). The Oxford Illustrated history of the Crusades. Oxford: Oxford Press. p. 66.

[13] Ibn Khaldun, 1958. The Muqaddimah, translated by Rosenthal, Franz, An Introduction to History, New York: Princeton University Press.

 

[14] Craig Calhoun, Is it Time to Be Postnational?, in Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights, (eds.) Stephen May, Tariq Modood and Judith Squires. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. pp 231–256